Jump to content

Indonesian archipelago

(Redirected from Indonesian Archipelago)
For details about the sovereign state encompassing the Indonesian archipelago, see Indonesia.
Indonesian Archipelago
Native name:
Kepulauan Indonesia
Map of the Indonesian archipelago
Indonesian archipelago on the world map
Etymology
  • Indonesia from Greek: Ινδο (Indo, lit. 'Indies') + νησιά (nisiá, lit. 'islands')
  • Nusantara from Javanese: ꦤꦸꦱ (Nusa, lit. 'islands') + ꦲꦤ꧀ꦠꦫ (antara, lit. 'outer')
Geography
LocationSoutheast Asia and Oceania
Coordinates6°10′S 106°49′E
Adjacent to
Total islands± 17,000–18,000 islands[1][2]
Major islands
Area1,904,569[3]–8,300,000[4][5] km2 (735,358–3,204,648 sq mi)
Highest elevation4,884 m (16024 ft)[a]
Highest pointPuncak Jaya, Central Papua
Administration
Capital and largest cityJakarta (pop. 10.56 million as of 2020)
PresidentPrabowo Subianto
Demographics
DemonymIndonesians
Population± 280,000,000 (2023)
Ethnic groups

The Indonesian archipelago (Indonesian: Kepulauan Indonesia) is a large collection of over 17,000 to 18,000 islands[6][7] located between the Indian and Pacific Oceans in Southeast Asia and Oceania.[8] It is the world's largest archipelago,[9] with five main islands—Sumatra, Java, Borneo (shared with Malaysia and Brunei), Sulawesi, and New Guinea (shared with Papua New Guinea).

Indonesia is famous for its biodiversity, unique animals and ecosystems that range from tropical rainforests to volcanoes, making it one of the most biodiverse countries in the world.[10][11] The cultural heritage of the Indonesian archipelago reflects a profound diversity, encompassing hundreds of distinct ethnic groups and languages. Its strategic location and natural resources have long made Indonesia an important trading center and a major player in regional and global affairs. Influenced by Hindu, Buddhist, Islamic, and European colonial cultures, Indonesia gained independence in 1945.

The Indonesian archipelago consists of about 6,000 inhabited islands, with many others that are uninhabited.[3] These islands range from densely populated Java—often regarded as the economic and cultural heart of Indonesia, home to numerous candi (temples), including Borobudur, the world’s largest Buddhist temple—to small, remote islands. Bali is known as a tourist destination, famous for its nature and culture making it one of the most popular tourist destinations in the world, Sumatra with its natural resources and strategic position on the Malacca Strait, and Komodo with its unique lizards. The Maluku Islands, or Rem-pah Islands, have an important history in the world spice trade.[12]

Etymology

The extent of Majapahit Nusantara according to Nagarakretagama

The term "Indonesian Archipelago", derived from the Greek "Indos" meaning India referring to the Indian subcontinent and "nesos" meaning island, literally translating to "Indian Archipelago".[13] The Indonesian archipelago is the largest archipelago in the world, consisting of large islands such as Sumatra, Java, Kalimantan, Sulawesi, and Papua, as well as 17,000 to 18,000 medium-sized and small islands spread across the Indian Ocean and Pacific Ocean. Within the Indonesian archipelago, the “Sunda Islands” form an important subgroup, divided into the Greater Sunda Islands -islands in the western part of Indonesia such as Sumatra, Java, Borneo (Kalimantan), and Sulawesi - known for their large size and dense population and the Lesser Sunda Islands, which extend eastward from Bali and are characterized by smaller islands such as Lombok, Sumbawa, Flores, and Timor, each of which has a distinct ecology.

Nusantara

The term "Nusantara", often an alternative name for the Indonesian archipelago, comes from Old Javanese,[14][15] which emphasizes unity as a maritime nation with diverse cultures and vast landscapes. The term is closely associated with the Majapahit era in Java, a period characterized by extensive maritime dominance in the region, which matched the boundaries of present-day Indonesia. Majapahit's influence extended through trade networks, maritime routes and the influence of a shared cultural heritage that shaped its identity.[16]

Jawi Islands

Eighth-century Arab geographers identified the whole Maritime Southeast Asian region as "Jawi" (Arabic:جاوي). The word "Jawi" (جاوي) is an adjective for the Arabic noun Jawah (جاوة). Both terms may originate from an Indian source, the term "Javadvipa", the ancient name for Java, or from Javanese source because (Javanese: ꦗꦮꦶ, romanized: jawi) is the Javanese Krama form of the word (Javanese: ꦗꦮ, romanized: jawa) to mean Java (geographically: ꦠꦤꦃꦗꦮꦶ, romanized: tanah Jawi, or ethnically: ꦠꦶꦪꦁꦗꦮꦶ, romanized: tiyang Jawi).[17][18]

Malay Archipelago

The term “Malay Archipelago” (Indonesian: Kepulauan Melayu) is sometimes used interchangeably with the Indonesian Archipelago, highlighting the connections among the Malay-speaking peoples of these islands. The term derives from the old European concept of the ‘Malay race’, which referred to the brown-skinned people of maritime southeast Asia.[19] The name “Malay” was derived from European explorers' observations of the strong influence of the Srivijaya Empire, centered on the island of Sumatra. The term remains highly controversial in Indonesia and outside the Malay-speaking areas, because it is considered politically charged and irredentist rather than purely cultural.[20]

History

Main article: History of Indonesia

Pre Historic

The Indonesian archipelago has been inhabited since 2 million years ago, with the discovery of the remains of Homo erectus, known as Java Man, on the island of Java.[21][22] These findings represent some of the earliest evidence of human habitation in Southeast Asia.[23] The discovery of ancient human remains in Flores, including the famous hobbit-like Flores Man or Homo floresiensis, is estimated to be 500,000 years old. The Indonesian archipelago is also home to many of the world's oldest paintings, found mainly in caves in Sulawesi and Borneo. These paintings, which depict hand stencils and animal images, are about 40,000 years old, and provide valuable knowledge regarding the artistic expression of early humans.[24] Recent discoveries, such as those found in caves in Sulawesi, Leang Karampuang, which are about 51,200 years old, are considered to be the oldest known paintings in the world.[25][26][27]

Austronesian people form the majority of the modern population. They may have arrived in Indonesia around 2000 BCE and are thought to have originated in Taiwan.[28] Ideal agricultural conditions, and the mastery of rice cultivation in the fields since the 8th century BC, allowed villages, towns, and small kingdoms to flourish in the 1st century AD. These kingdoms (which were nothing more than collections of villages subject to tribal chiefs) flourished with their own ethnic and tribal religions.[29]

By the first millennium CE, the Indonesian archipelago had become a crucial maritime trade route connecting the East and West. Early trade networks facilitated the exchange of goods, ideas, and cultures between the islands and neighboring regions, including Mainland China, Indian subcontinent, and the Middle East. This period saw the rise of influential Hinduism and Buddhist kingdoms, which played a significant role in shaping the political landscape of the archipelago.[30][31][32]

Kingdom period

References to the Dvipantara or Yawadvipa, a Hindu kingdom in Java and Sumatra appear in Sanskrit writings from 200 BCE. In India's earliest epic, the Ramayana, Sugriva, the chief of Rama's army dispatched his men to Yawadvipa, the island of Java, in search of Sita.[33] According to the ancient Tamil text Manimekalai Java had a kingdom with a capital called Nagapuram.[34][35][36] The earliest archaeological relic discovered in Indonesia is from the Ujung Kulon National Park, West Java, where an early Hindu statue of Ganesha estimated from the 1st century CE was found on the summit of Mount Raksa in Panaitan island. There is also archaeological evidence of Sunda Kingdom in West Java dating from the 2nd-century, and Jiwa Temple in Batujaya, Karawang, West Java was probably built around this time.[37]

One of the earliest and most powerful of these kingdoms was the Srivijaya Empire, which emerged in the 7th century in Sumatra.[38][39] Srivijaya dominated trade in Southeast Asia for several centuries, controlling the strategic Malacca and Sunda Straits, as well as the world's Spice Route, and facilitating the spread of Hinduism and Buddhism throughout the region.[40] The wealth and influence of Srivijaya were reflected in its capital, Palembang, which became a major center of learning and culture.[41] At that time, ancient Indonesian sailors had made long voyages to Madagascar and East Africa.[42]

Mataram Kingdom, ruled by the Sailendra and Sanjaya in Central Java during the 8th and 9th centuries, is renowned for successfully integrating two major religions—Hinduism and Buddhism—within a single government. The Sailendra, adherents of Mahayana Buddhism, left an enduring legacy with the construction of Borobudur temple, the world’s largest Buddhist monument. Meanwhile, the Sanjaya, followers of Shaivism Hinduism, constructed the Prambanan temple complex, one of the largest Hindu temple sites in Asia, dedicated to the Trimurti: Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva.[43] By the late 9th and early 10th centuries, the center of power shifted from Central Java to East Java, a move often attributed to volcanic activity from Mount Merapi or pressure from the expanding Melayu/Srivijaya Empire. [44]

The subsequent rise of the Hindu Majapahit Empire in the 13th century marked another golden age in Indonesian history. Under the leadership of powerful rulers such as King Hayam Wuruk and his prime minister Gajah Mada, Majapahit extended its influence over much of modern-day Indonesia, as well as parts of Malaysia, Singapore, and the Philippines.[45]

The first evidence of Indonesian Muslims comes from northern Sumatra; Marco Polo, on his way home from China in 1292, reported at least one Muslim town.[46]

The limited evidence that is currently known suggests that the spread of Islam accelerated in the 15th century. One of the defining characteristics of the spread was that it was achieved through generally peaceful means.[27][47][48]

Colonial era

The European colonial era began in the early 16th century with the arrival of Portuguese explorers, who sought to control the lucrative spice trade. The Portuguese established a foothold in the Maluku Islands, but their influence was soon challenged by the Dutch and the British. The Dutch East India Company (VOC) emerged as the dominant colonial power, establishing a network of trading posts and fortresses across the archipelago. By the 17th century, the VOC had effectively monopolized the spice trade and exerted considerable political influence over the local sultanates.[citation needed]

In the 19th century, following the bankruptcy of the VOC, the Dutch government took direct control of the archipelago, consolidating its territories into the Dutch East Indies. The colonial period brought significant social, economic, and infrastructural changes, but it was also marked by resistance and uprisings from local populations. Notable revolts include the Java War (1825–1830) led by Prince Diponegoro and the Aceh War (1873–1904). The struggle for independence intensified in the early 20th century, with the rise of nationalist movements and organizations such as the Budi Utomo, Sarekat Islam, and the Indonesian National Party (PNI) founded by Sukarno.[citation needed]

Post-independence era

The Proclamation of Indonesian Independence on August 17, 1945, by Sukarno and Mohammad Hatta, marked a pivotal moment in the archipelago's history. However, the path to full sovereignty was fraught with conflict, as the Dutch sought to re-establish control after World War II. The ensuing Indonesian National Revolution involved diplomatic negotiations and armed struggle, culminating in the recognition of Indonesian independence by the Dutch in 1949.[citation needed]

Geography

Main article: Geography of Indonesia

The Indonesian archipelago is a vast and diverse island chain located in Southeast Asia, stretching from the edge of Maritime Southeast Asia to the fringes of Oceania. This expansive archipelago spans approximately 5,120 kilometres (3,181 mi) from east to west and 1,760 kilometres (1,094 mi) from north to south, straddling the equator between 6°N and 11°S latitude and 95°E to 141°E longitude. Comprising over 17,000 islands, of which about 6,000 are inhabited, it is the world's largest archipelagic state.[49]

The Indonesian archipelago has a total land area of 1,904,569 square kilometers (735,358 sq mi), including 93,000 square kilometres (35,908 sq mi) of inland seas such as straits, bays, and other bodies of water. The surrounding sea areas increase the generally recognized territory of the Indonesian archipelago (land and sea) to about 5 million km². The exclusive economic zone is 6,159,032 km² (2,378,016 sq mi), bringing the total area to approximately 7.9 million km².[50][51]

The archipelago is composed of several major island groups, including the Greater Sunda Islands, Lesser Sunda Islands, Maluku Islands, and Western New Guinea. Among these, the largest islands are Sumatra, Java, Borneo (shared with Malaysia and Brunei), Sulawesi, and the western half of New Guinea. These islands vary greatly in size, with Sumatra covering 473,481 square kilometers, Java 138,794 square kilometers, and the Indonesian portion of Borneo, known as Kalimantan, spanning 743,330 square kilometers.

Geology

Main articles: Geology of Indonesia and Volcanoes of Indonesia

The Indonesian archipelago is complex and dynamic, shaped by millions of years of tectonic activity and volcanic processes. It sits at the convergence of several major tectonic plates: the Eurasian, Indo-Australian, Philippine Sea, and Pacific Plates. This interaction has created one of the most geologically active areas on Earth, part of the Pacific Ring of Fire. [52] Between 1972 and 1991, there were 29 volcanic eruptions, mostly on Java.[53]

The western archipelago, including Sumatra and Java, features a volcanic arc from the subduction of the Indo-Australian Plate beneath the Eurasian Plate, resulting in volcanoes like Mount Merapi and Mount Kerinci. The central and eastern regions, such as Sulawesi and the Maluku, are shaped by interactions of multiple plates, creating diverse geological features and island arcs.

Indonesia has around 150 active volcanoes, with volcanic activity contributing to fertile soils, especially in Java. Frequent earthquakes result from constant tectonic movement, with fault lines such as the Great Sumatran fault contributing to seismic activity and tsunamis, exemplified by the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami.[52]

The archipelago is rich in mineral resources, including oil, natural gas, coal, gold, tin, copper, and nickel. Unique geological formations also create karst landscapes, such as the Gunung Sewu and Maros-Pangkep areas, with cave systems and hills. Varied geology also leads to features like underground rivers in karst areas and crater lakes in volcanic regions, such as Lake Toba.[54]

Biodiversity

Main articles: Fauna of Indonesia and Flora of Indonesia

The Indonesian Archipelago is one of the most biodiverse regions on the planet, and it is among the 17 Megadiverse countries identified by Conservation International.[55] This vast area spans both the Asian and Australian biogeographic zones, resulting in a unique and rich array of flora, fauna, and marine life. [56][57] Indonesian archipelago diverse ecosystems, ranging from lush rainforests to mangroves and savannas, support a variety of plant life. The archipelago is home to approximately 28,000 species of flowering plants, including around 2,500 species of orchids. Some of the most notable plants include the Rafflesia arnoldii, which produces the world’s largest flower, and the titan arum, known for its enormous inflorescence and distinctive odor.

The fauna of Indonesia is equally diverse and includes many endemic species. The archipelago hosts around 1,531 bird species, 515 of which are endemic. Notable avian residents include the critically endangered Javan Hawk-Eagle and the beautiful Birds of Paradise.[58] Mammalian diversity is also significant, with species such as the Sumatran tiger, orangutan, and the Borneo pygmy elephant. Indonesia is also home to the Komodo dragon, the largest living lizard on Earth, found exclusively on a few islands within the archipelago.

Indonesia's marine biodiversity is among the richest in the world, making it a critical hotspot for marine conservation. The coral reefs in the Coral Triangle, which includes parts of Indonesia, are teeming with life, hosting over 500 species of coral and more than 2,000 species of reef fish. The waters around Indonesia also support populations of large marine animals such as whale sharks, manta rays, and various species of sea turtles.[59] The vibrant marine ecosystems not only support a wide range of species but also provide crucial resources and livelihoods for millions of Indonesians.

Major Islands

Island's name Area
(km2)		 Area
(sq mi)		 Population Province(s), Country or countries
New Guinea 785,753[60] 303,381 11,818,000  Indonesia (Western New Guinea) and  Papua New Guinea
Borneo 748,168 288,869 21,258,000  Brunei,  Malaysia and  Indonesia (Central, East, North, South and West Kalimantan)
Sumatra 473,481 184,954 47,010,000  Indonesia (Aceh, Bengkulu, Jambi, Lampung, Riau and North, South and West Sumatra)
Sulawesi 180,681 69,761 17,371,783  Indonesia (Gorontalo and Central, North, South, South East Sulawesi and West Sulawesi)
Java 138,794 53,589 139,448,718  Indonesia (Banten, Jakarta, Yogyakarta and Central, East and West Java

Demography

Main articles: Demographics of Indonesia, Ethnic groups in Indonesia, Languages of Indonesia, and Religion in Indonesia
Map of districts (kecamatan, one level below the city/regency) in Indonesia, coloured by its population density as measured by person per square kilometres

The population of the Indonesian archipelago is 270.20 million based on the 2020 national census, up from 237.64 million in 2010.[61][62] The official estimate by the end of 2024 is 283 million, increasing at a rate of 1.2% per year. The Indonesian archipelago is the most densely populated archipelago in the world, followed by the Japanese archipelago. Although dense, the distribution of the population is uneven, about 55% of Indonesia's population lives on the island of Java, the most populous island in the world.

A map of ethnic groups in Indonesia

The Indonesian archipelago is characterized by significant ethnic diversity, comprising approximately 600 distinct native ethnic groups.[63][64] The majority of Indonesians are descended from Austronesian peoples, whose languages trace back to Proto-Austronesian, likely originating in present-day Taiwan.[65][66] Another prominent group is the Melanesians, who primarily reside in eastern Indonesia, including the Maluku Islands, Western New Guinea, and the eastern part of the Lesser Sunda Islands.[67][68]

The Javanese are the largest ethnic group, making up 40.2% of the population and holding considerable political influence. They are predominantly located in the central and eastern parts of Java, with significant numbers spread across various provinces. Following the Javanese, the Sundanese are the next largest group at 15.4%, with other notable groups including the Malay, Batak, Madurese, Betawi, Minangkabau, and Bugis.

The linguistic landscape of Indonesia is equally diverse, with over 700 indigenous languages spoken across the archipelago.[69] Despite this diversity, Indonesian also known as “Bahasa Indonesia” serves as the national language and unifying lingua franca. Religious diversity is also prominent, with Islam being the predominant faith, followed by significant populations of Christians, Hindus, and Buddhists. Despite the strong sense of regional identities, there exists a robust sense of Indonesian national identity.[70]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ The elevation given here was determined by the 1971–73 Australian Universities' Expedition and is supported by the Seven Summits authorities and modern high resolution radar data. An older but still often quoted elevation of 5,030 metres (16,503 ft) is obsolete.

References

  1. ^ "Jumlah Pulau Resmi di RI Capai 17.024, Masih Ada yang Tanpa Identitas". cnnindonesia.com (in Indonesian). 2023-11-20. Retrieved 2020-06-19.
  2. ^ "Indonesia at a Glance". kemlu.com (in Indonesian). 2023-11-20.
  3. ^ a b CIA World Factbook Cite error: The named reference "CIA" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  4. ^ Faure, Michael G. (2006). Prevention and Compensation of Marine Pollution Damage: Recent Developments in Europe, China and the US. Kluwer Law International. ISBN 9789041123381.
  5. ^ Frederick, William H.; Worden, Robert L. (2011). Indonesia: A Country Study. Government Printing Office. ISBN 9780844407906.
  6. ^ Undang-undang RI Nomor 9 Tahun 1996 tentang Perairan Indonesia [Law No 9/1996 on Maritime Territory of Indonesia] (Law 9, Explanatory notes of Law 9/1996) (in Indonesian). People's Representative Council. 1996.
  7. ^ Purwanto, Heru, ed. (10 January 2017). "Indonesia to register 14,752 officially named islands with UN". Antara News. Retrieved 19 October 2021.
  8. ^ Frederick, William H.; Worden, Robert L. (1993). Indonesia: A Country Study. Area Handbook Series. Vol. 550. Washington, D.C.: Federal Research Division, Library of Congress. p. 98. ISBN 9780844407906. Archived from the original on 2023-01-20. Retrieved 9 November 2023.
  9. ^ "Island Countries of the World". WorldAtlas.com. Archived from the original on 2017-12-07. Retrieved 2019-08-10.
  10. ^ Williams, J. (2001). "Biodiversity Theme Report". environment.gov.au. Archived from the original on 2008-12-08. Retrieved 2019-10-02.
  11. ^ "Megadiverse Countries definition| Biodiversity A-Z". biodiversitya-z.org.
  12. ^ "Spices and Their Costs in Medieval Europe". www.economics.utoronto.ca. Archived from the original on 30 October 2020. Retrieved 21 June 2020.
  13. ^ Tomascik, Tomas; Mah, Anmarie Janice; Nontji, Anugerah; Moosa, Mohammad Kasim (1996). The Ecology of the Indonesian Seas – Part One. Hong Kong: Periplus Editions. ISBN 978-962-593-078-7.
  14. ^ Echols, John M.; Shadily, Hassan (1989), Kamus Indonesia Inggris (An Indonesian-English Dictionary) (1st,6th ed.), Jakarta: Gramedia, ISBN 979-403-756-7
  15. ^ Friend, T. (2003). Indonesian Destinies. Harvard University Press. p. 601. ISBN 0-674-01137-6.
  16. ^ Mpu, Prapañca; Y., Padmapuspita (1966). Pararaton. Taman Siswa.
  17. ^ Kridalaksana, Harimurti (2001). Wiwara: Pengantar Bahasa dan Kebudayaan Jawa (in Indonesian). Jakarta: PT Gramedia Pustaka Utama.
  18. ^ S.K., Lim (2011). Asian Civilizations. Singapore: Asiapac Books Pte Ltd. ISBN 978-981-229-594-1.
  19. ^ Wallace, Alfred Russel (1869). The Malay Archipelago. London: Macmillan and Co. p. 1.
  20. ^ Echols, John M.; Shadily, Hassan (1989). Kamus Indonesia Inggris (An Indonesian-English Dictionary) (1st ed.). Jakarta: Gramedia. ISBN 979-403-756-7.; Moores, Eldridge M.; Fairbridge, Rhodes Whitmore (1997). Encyclopedia of European and Asian regional geology. Springer. p. 377. ISBN 0-412-74040-0. Retrieved 30 November 2009.
  21. ^ Pope, G.G. (1988). "Recent advances in far eastern paleoanthropology". Annual Review of Anthropology. 17: 43–77. doi:10.1146/annurev.an.17.100188.000355. cited in Whitten, T.; Soeriaatmadja, R.E.; Suraya, A.A. (1996). The Ecology of Java and Bali. Hong Kong: Periplus Editions. pp. 309–412.
  22. ^ de Vos, J.P.; Sondaar, P.Y. (1994). "Dating hominid sites in Indonesia". Science. 266 (16): 4988–4992. Bibcode:1994Sci...266.1726D. doi:10.1126/science.7992059.
  23. ^ Pope, G.G. (1983). "Evidence on the age of the Asian Hominidae". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 80 (16): 4988–4992. Bibcode:1983PNAS...80.4988P. doi:10.1073/pnas.80.16.4988. PMC 384173. PMID 6410399.
  24. ^ Ferreira, Becky (11 December 2019). "Mythical Beings May Be Earliest Imaginative Cave Art by Humans - The paintings on an Indonesian island are at least 43,900 years old and depict humanoid figures with animal-like features in a hunting scene". The New York Times. Retrieved 12 December 2019.
  25. ^ Aubert, M.; et al. (11 December 2019). "Earliest hunting scene in prehistoric art". Nature. 576 (7787): 442–445. Bibcode:2019Natur.576..442A. doi:10.1038/s41586-019-1806-y. PMID 31827284. S2CID 209311825.
  26. ^ Oktaviana, Adhi Agus; Joannes-Boyau, Renaud; Hakim, Budianto; Burhan, Basran; Sardi, Ratno; Adhityatama, Shinatria; Hamrullah; Sumantri, Iwan; Tang, M.; Lebe, Rustan; Ilyas, Imran; Abbas, Abdullah; Jusdi, Andi; Mahardian, Dewangga Eka; Noerwidi, Sofwan (2024-07-03). "Narrative cave art in Indonesia by 51,200 years ago". Nature. 631 (8022): 814–818. doi:10.1038/s41586-024-07541-7. ISSN 0028-0836. PMC 11269172. PMID 38961284.
  27. ^ a b Harris, Garreth (2024-07-04). "Oldest example of figurative art found in Indonesian cave". The Art Newspaper. Retrieved 2024-07-05.
  28. ^ Taylor (2003), pp. 5–7
  29. ^ Taylor 2003, pp. 8–9.
  30. ^ Taylor 2003, pp. 15–18.
  31. ^ Taylor 2003, pp. 3, 9–11, 13–15, 18–20, 22–23.
  32. ^ Vickers 2005, pp. 18–20, 60, 133–134.
  33. ^ Kapur; Kamlesh (11 November 2023). History of Ancient India Kapur, Kamlesh. Sterling Publishers Pvt. ISBN 9788120749108. Archived from the original on 17 October 2023. Retrieved 15 March 2023.
  34. ^ Hindu culture in ancient India by Sekharipuram Vaidyanatha Viswanatha p.177
  35. ^ Tamil Literature by M. S. Purnalingam Pillai p.46
  36. ^ The Tamils Eighteen Hundred Years Ago by V. Kanakasabhai p.11
  37. ^ History of Humanity: From the seventh century B.C. to the seventh century A.D. by Sigfried J. de Laet p.395
  38. ^ Taylor 2003, pp. 22–26.
  39. ^ Ricklefs 1991, p. 3.
  40. ^ Public Domain This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain: Seekins, Donald M. (1993). "Indianized empires". In Frederick, William H.; Worden, Robert L. (eds.). Indonesia: a country study. Area handbook series1057-5294 (5th ed.). Washington, D.C.: Federal Research Division, Library of Congress. ISBN 9780844407906. Archived from the original on 9 December 2022. Retrieved 25 September 2022.
  41. ^ Laet, Sigfried J. de; Herrmann, Joachim (1994). History of Humanity. Routledge.
  42. ^ Murray P. Cox; Michael G. Nelson; Meryanne K. Tumonggor; François-X. Ricaut; Herawati Sudoyo (2012-03-21). "A small cohort of Island Southeast Asian women founded Madagascar". Proceedings of the Royal Society B. 279 (1739): 2761–2768. doi:10.1098/rspb.2012.0012. PMC 3367776. PMID 22438500.
  43. ^ Coedès, George (1968). Walter F. Vella, ed. The Indianized States of Southeast Asia. trans.Susan Brown Cowing. University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-0368-1.
  44. ^ Kusumayudha S.B., Murwanto H., Sutarto, Choiriyah S.U. (2019) Volcanic Disaster and the Decline of Mataram Kingdom in the Central Java, Indonesia Archived 1 August 2020 at the Wayback Machine. In: Wasowski J., Dijkstra T. (eds) Recent Research on Engineering Geology and Geological Engineering. GeoMEast 2018. Sustainable Civil Infrastructures. Springer, Cham
  45. ^ Lewis, Peter (1982). "The next great empire". Futures. 14 (1): 47–61. doi:10.1016/0016-3287(82)90071-4.
  46. ^ Raden Abdulkadir Widjojoatmodjo (November 1942). "Islam in the Netherlands East Indies". The Far Eastern Quarterly. 2 (1): 48–57. doi:10.2307/2049278. JSTOR 2049278. S2CID 161399511.
  47. ^ Alles, Delphine (2015). "Historical Detour: The Long Interplay between Transnational Islamic Actors and the Archipelago's Foreign Relations". Transnational Islamic Actors and Indonesia's Foreign Policy: Transcending the State. Routledge. p. 13. ISBN 978-1-317-65592-3.
  48. ^ Ipenburg, At; Roof, Wade Clark (2011). "Indonesia". Encyclopedia of Global Religion. SAGE Publications. p. 558. ISBN 978-0-7619-2729-7.
  49. ^ Frederick, William H.; Worden, Robert L. (1993). Indonesia: A Country Study. Area Handbook Series. Vol. 550. Washington, D.C.: Federal Research Division, Library of Congress. p. 98. ISBN 9780844407906. Archived from the original on 2023-01-20. Retrieved 9 November 2023.
  50. ^ Faure, Michael G. (2006). Prevention and Compensation of Marine Pollution Damage: Recent Developments in Europe, China and the US. Kluwer Law International. ISBN 9789041123381.
  51. ^ Frederick, William H.; Worden, Robert L. (2011). Indonesia: A Country Study. Government Printing Office. ISBN 9780844407906.
  52. ^ a b "Indonesia: Volcano nation". BBC. 2015-11-05. Archived from the original on 2017-11-28. Retrieved 2017-11-28.
  53. ^ World and Its Peoples: Eastern and Southern Asia, Volume 10. Marshall Cavendish. 2007. p. 1306. ISBN 978-0-7614-7631-3.
  54. ^ Bressan, David (2017-08-11). "Early Humans May Have Lived Through A Supervolcano Eruption". Forbes. Archived from the original on 2017-08-11. Retrieved 2017-10-11.
  55. ^ "These Are The 5 Most Biodiverse Countries In The World". Yahoo. Archived from the original on 2023-03-02. Retrieved 2022-03-02.
  56. ^ Whitten, T.; Henderson, G.; Mustafa, M. (1996). The Ecology of Sulawesi. Hong Kong: Periplus Editions Ltd. ISBN 978-962-593-075-6.
  57. ^ Monk, K.A.; Fretes, Y.; Reksodiharjo-Lilley, G. (1996). The Ecology of Nusa Tenggara and Maluku. Hong Kong: Periplus Editions Ltd. ISBN 978-962-593-076-3.
  58. ^ Lambertini, Marco (2011-04-10). "A Naturalist's Guide to the Tropics, excerpt". The University of Chicago Press. Archived from the original on 2017-02-05. Retrieved 2017-02-05.
  59. ^ Roberts, T.S. (1993). The freshwater fishes of Java, as observed by Kuhl and van Hasselt in 1820–23. Leiden: Rijksmuseum van Natuurlijke Historie. PDF.
  60. ^ Ganeri, Anita (2014). Island Life. Raintree. p. 43. ISBN 9781406249453.
  61. ^ "Hasil Sensus Penduduk 2020" (PDF) (in Indonesian). Statistics Indonesia. 21 January 2021. p. 9. Archived (PDF) from the original on 22 January 2021. Retrieved 21 January 2021.
  62. ^ "Population of Indonesia by Province 1971, 1980, 1990, 1995, 2000 and 2010". Statistics Indonesia. Archived from the original on 23 November 2017. Retrieved 18 May 2015.
  63. ^ Na'im, Akhsan; Syaputra, Hendry (2011). "Kewarganegaraan, Suku Bangsa, Agama dan Bahasa Sehari-hari Penduduk Indonesia" (PDF) (in Indonesian). Statistics Indonesia. Archived (PDF) from the original on 23 September 2015. Retrieved 23 September 2015.
  64. ^ "Mengulik Data Suku di Indonesia" (in Indonesian). Statistics Indonesia. 18 November 2015. Retrieved 1 January 2021.
  65. ^ Taylor, Jean Gelman (2003). Indonesia. Yale University Press. pp. 5–7. ISBN 978-0-300-09709-2.
  66. ^ Witton, Patrick (2003). Indonesia. Melbourne: Lonely Planet. pp. 139, 181, 251, 435. ISBN 978-1-74059-154-6.
  67. ^ Dawson, B.; Gillow, J. (1994). The Traditional Architecture of Indonesia. London: Thames and Hudson Ltd. p. 7. ISBN 978-0-500-34132-2.
  68. ^ Truman Simanjuntak; Herawati Sudoyo; Multamia R.M.T. Lauder; Allan Lauder; Ninuk Kleden Probonegoro; Rovicky Dwi Putrohari; Desy Pola Usmany; Yudha P.N. Yapsenang; Edward L. Poelinggomang; Gregorius Neonbasu (2015). Diaspora Melanesia di Nusantara (in Indonesian). Direktorat Sejarah, Direktorat Jenderal Kebudayaan, Kementerian Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan. ISBN 978-602-1289-19-8. Archived from the original on 2022-12-25. Retrieved 2022-08-24.
  69. ^ Lewis, M. Paul (2009), Ethnologue: Languages of the World (16th ed.), SIL International, retrieved 17 November 2009
  70. ^ Ricklefs, Merle Calvin (1991). A history of modern Indonesia since c. 1300 (2nd ed.). Basingstoke; Stanford, CA: Palgrave; Stanford University Press. p. 256. ISBN 0-333-57690-X.
Retrieved from "https://en.Wik.ipedia.Pro.org/w/index.php?title=Indonesian_archipelago&oldid=1270462252"

See what we do next...

OR

By submitting your email or phone number, you're giving mschf permission to send you email and/or recurring marketing texts. Data rates may apply. Text stop to cancel, help for help.

Success: You're subscribed now !